DIGILEC Revista Internacional de Lenguas y Culturas
Digilec 11 (2024), pp. 126-149
Fecha de recepción: 31/05/2024
Fecha de aceptación: 19/09/2024
DOI: https://doi.org/10.17979/digilec.2024.11.10856
e-ISSN: 2386-6691
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE AND TEACHERS’
SELF EFFICACY IN SPAIN
COMPETENCIA SOCIAL Y EMOCIONAL Y AUTOEFICACIA DE
LOS DOCENTES EN ESPAÑA
Nishana TAGHIYEVA
Universidad de Córdoba
Eva ROMERA FÉLIX
Universidad de Córdoba
Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9414-8019
Antonio CAMACHO LÓPEZ
Universidad de Córdoba
Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1690-834X
Abstract
This study aimed to explore the relationships between social and emotional competence
and teachers' self-efficacy in the Spanish educational context, as understanding these
dynamics is essential for enhancing teachers’ ability oversee classrooms effectively,
foster favorable student outcomes and advance overall wellbeing in educational
environments. The quantitative approach and descriptive correlational study were used to
conduct the investigation. The data was gathered from 212 primary school teachers who
were selected using a non-probabilistic sampling method in Cordoba. Participants
completed three questionnaires- emotional intelligence questionnaire, which assess
emotional competence; interpersonal competence questionnaire, which evaluates social
competence; and self-efficacy questionnaire, which measures teachers’ beliefs in their
ability to successfully manage teaching tasks. Descriptive analysis was employed to
summarize the characteristics of the variables, while correlation analysis explored the
relationships between them. According to the results of these analyses social and
emotional competence and dimensions of teachers’ self-efficacy were positively
correlated with each other according to Pearson correlation. Additionally, t-tests were
used to discover possible differences in these variables based on democratic
characteristics like gender and teaching experience. Considering gender, it was
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determined that there were not any differences in most variables. Additionally, there was
not a significant association between teachers' experience and any of the self-efficacy
subscales.
Keywords: interpersonal competence; emotional intelligence; self-efficacy; self-
assessment; classroom performance
Resumen
Este estudio tuvo como objetivo explorar las relaciones entre la competencia social y
emocional y la autoeficacia de los maestros en el contexto educativo español, ya que
comprender estas dinámicas es esencial para mejorar la capacidad de los docentes de
gestionar eficazmente las aulas, fomentar resultados favorables en los estudiantes y
promover el bienestar general en los entornos educativos. Se utilizó un enfoque
cuantitativo y un estudio descriptivo correlacional para llevar a cabo la investigación. Los
datos fueron recopilados de 212 maestros de primaria que fueron seleccionados mediante
un método de muestreo no probabilístico en Córdoba. Los participantes completaron tres
cuestionarios: el cuestionario de inteligencia emocional, que evalúa la competencia
emocional; el cuestionario de competencia interpersonal, que evalúa la competencia
social; y el cuestionario de autoeficacia, que mide las creencias de los docentes sobre su
capacidad para gestionar con éxito las tareas de enseñanza. Se empleó un análisis
descriptivo para resumir las características de las variables, mientras que el análisis de
correlación exploró las relaciones entre ellas. Según los resultados de estos análisis, la
competencia social y emocional y las dimensiones de la autoeficacia de los maestros
estaban positivamente correlacionadas entre sí según la correlación de Pearson. Además,
se utilizaron pruebas t para descubrir posibles diferencias en estas variables basadas en
características demográficas como el género y la experiencia docente. Considerando el
género, se determinó que no había diferencias en la mayoría de las variables. Además, no
hubo una asociación significativa entre la experiencia de los maestros y ninguna de las
subescalas de autoeficacia.
Palabras clave: competencia interpersonal; inteligencia emocional; autoeficacia;
autoevaluación; desempeño en el aula
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1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the value of social and emotional competence (SEC) in education
has become more prevalent. International organizations such as The Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), European Union, and United Nations
acknowledge that SEC is important for human development and has predictive power for
educational results (Poulou, 2018). The World Bank, World Health Organization,
UNICEF, and other partners have collaborated to set specific goals for developing social
and emotional intelligence (Muller et al., 2020). The teaching profession can be regarded
as one of the most emotionally challenging occupations, with potential impacts on mental
health and well-being (Martínez-Monteagudo et al., 2019). The self-efficacy of teachers
affects both their behaviour and the performance of their students (Tschannen-Moran et
al., 1998). It is essential to investigate factors that are associated with teachers' self-
efficacy, as noted by researchers such as Klassen et al. (2011). As a result, there has been
a growing emphasis on providing teachers with the training and support necessary to
cultivate these skills in their students.
The objective of the study is to analyse the relationship between SEC and teachers'
self-efficacy in Spain. The study specifically aims to investigate whether teachers' self-
efficacy, is related to their social and emotional competence, which includes their
capacity to recognize and regulate emotions, empathize with others, and build positive
relationships. The study will also explore whether various demographic factors such as
gender, and years of teaching experience relate to the relationship between SEC and
teacher self-efficacy.
Understanding the relationship between social-emotional competence and teacher
self-efficacy is crucial as it may provide insights into how to support teachers in
enhancing their teaching practices and ultimately in improving student outcomes.
This study has three hypotheses: Higher levels of social-emotional competence
will be positively associated with higher levels of teachers’ self-efficacy. Secondly, self-
efficacy levels between male and female teachers differ significantly in Spain, with
female teachers indicating higher levels than male teachers. The last one, social and
emotional competence and teachers’ self-efficacy are significantly influenced by years of
teachers' teaching experience and gender.
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1. Social and emotional competence
Emotional and social intelligence are indeed interrelated, as both are critical for
fostering interpersonal relationships and enhancing individual wellbeing. Emotional
competence supports effective communication and relationship-building, while social
competence is reliant on the ability to recognize, understand, and manage emotions in
oneself and others. These two domains are mutually dependent due to their
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complementary functions (Agbaria, 2021; Aguilar et al., 2019; Aldrup et al., 2017). SEC
involves the cognitive and behavioral processes that enable individuals to manage
emotions, set positive goals, demonstrate empathy, cultivate healthy relationships, and
make responsible decisions (CASEL,2013). SEC is vital for effective social interaction,
academic achievement, and overall well-being (Denham et al., 2013). Early development
of SEC is linked to better academic performance and future success (Lindqvist &
Vestman, 2011; Greenberg et al., 2003), while lack of SEC can lead to negative
behavioral outcomes, such as substance abuse (Lindqvist & Vestman, 2011).
Development of SEC results in effectiveness in social interaction, adaptation to
norms and social expectations, as well as adherence to social morals and values. It
consists of three core components: cognitive processes, emotions/affections, and
behavior. Demonstrating self-efficacy is also an important aspect of SEC(Dung & Aniko,
2021). SEC is an essential competency that people of all ages, including toddlers and
adults, can learn and develop (Greenberg et al., 2017).
The relationship between SEC and self-efficacy is significant since SEC enhance
self-efficacy by helping individuals manage emotions and challenges, while strong self-
efficacy boosts confidence in applying social-emotional skills, improving outcomes in
areas like education and mental health (Bandura, 1977; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009).
Strong SEC has been shown to enhance self-efficacy, which in turn positively influences
mental health and emotional well-being (Bandura et al., 2003; Jennings & Greenberg.
2009). This reciprocal relationship between SEC and self-efficacy highlights the
importance of emotional regulation in overcoming stress and achieving psychological
balance (Aldrup et al., 2020).
2.2. Teachers’ self-efficacy
Bandura's social-cognitive (1997) theory suggests that self-efficacy beliefs are
context-dependent and have an impact on how people assess events and decide how to
respond. According to the theory of social cognition, educator self-efficacy can be defined
as a teacher's confidence in their own abilities to arrange, prepare, and perform the
necessary tasks to achieve specific academic objectives (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010).
Skaalvik and Skaalvik also mentioned that (2007), various factors including observational
and social learning, persuasive language, and physiological conditions can have an impact
on self-efficacy beliefs. Observing others’ success boosts belief in one’s abilities, while
positive reinforcement through language can strengthen self-efficacy. Additionally, how
one interprets physiological cues, such as stress, can either enhance or undermine
confidence in one’s capabilities (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Urdan, 1996).
Teachers with higher self-efficacy are more likely to implement diverse teaching
strategies, manage student behavior effectively, and maintain student engagement
(Friedman, 2003). As such, improving teacher’s self-efficacy is critical to enhancing
educational outcomes and fostering a positive learning environment (Skaalvik &
Skaalvik, 2007).
Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2007, 2010) developed the concept of teachers’ self-
efficacy by taking into consideration the impact of perceived self-efficacy on teachers'
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effectiveness. They used the Norwegian educational curriculum to analyze the roles of
teachers, which are common to all contemporary educational systems. The self-efficacy
of teachers is separated into six dimensions, each of which refers to one of the most
significant functions played by instructors. These dimensions include Instruction,
Motivating Students, Maintaining Discipline, Adapting Instruction to Individual
Students’ Needs, Cooperating with Colleagues and Parents, and Coping with Challenges.
Moreover, the researchers developed the Norwegian Teacher Self-Efficacy Scale to be
consistent with the structure of the self-efficacy notion. These dimensions provide a
structured way to assess how teacher’s self-efficacy interacts with their SEC – a central
aim of the study.
2.3. The implication of social and emotional competence in Spain
Social and emotional competence has become an increasingly important area of
research and practice in education in Spain. There is a significant amount of practice
focused on social and emotional competence, including the development and
implementation of interventions and programs aimed at promoting social and emotional
competence among children, adolescents, and adults. These interventions include Social
and Emotional Learning (SEL) programs, mindfulness-based interventions, positive
psychology interventions, and others. According to research conducted by Loinaz (2019),
teachers in Spain are aware of the importance of social and emotional learning for
developing students’ mental health, well-being, academic success, and relationships. In
Loinaz's article, it is mentioned that Spanish teachers tend to create classrooms that allow
for the expression of both students' and teachers' emotions, and that they believe in
blurring the boundaries between home and school emotionally. This is in line with
ecological theory, which suggests that children may face challenges when there is a
disconnect between parents and educators (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Overall, the findings
suggest that emotional openness and integration may be valued in the Spanish educational
context. One of the intervention projects that aimed to help and support Spanish teachers
in enhancing students' social and emotional skills and offering methods that may be
applied internationally is Learning to Be (L2B; Aguilar et al., 2019). Aguilar et al. (2019)
highlight that promoting a culture of caring in schools is essential for fostering positive
social relationships and encouraging respectful behavior. This culture is deeply
influenced by educational leadership, which plays a critical role in teaching ethical values
and setting expectations for social conduct. Such a culture must be established to foster a
supportive learning environment. Another project to implement these competences.
In Spain is the BOOST project (BOOST, 2022). BOOST is dedicated to developing
a new and creative approach to enhancing the social and emotional skills of students in
schools to improve mental health and well-being. The BOOST strategy was used in
schools in various cultural and socioeconomic situations, and as a result, a diverse range
of youngsters with various histories, vulnerabilities, and educational requirements
was included. With the help of this project, the school’s atmosphere was significantly
enhanced as a result of teachers acquiring numerous new social and emotional skills
(BOOST, 2022). These skills, in turn, improved the ability to manage classrooms
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effectively and fostered a more positive learning atmosphere. This is particularly relevant
to the aim of this study, which seeks to explore the impact of teachers’ SEC on their
teaching effectiveness and classroom management. As Romero-Garcia et al.(2022)
highlight, developing these competences is widely acknowledge as essential for
improving teaching outcomes and creating supportive classroom environments.
2.4. Relationship between social and emotional competence and self-efficacy
SEC and self-efficacy are deeply interconnected in educational settings. Teachers
who develop SEC are better equipped to handle the demands of their profession, from
classroom management to student engagement (Romero-Garcia et al., 2022). Emotional
regulation, self-awareness, and empathy allow teachers to build stronger relationship with
students and effectively manage classroom challenges (Jennings &Greenberg, 2009).
Research suggests that SEC not only enhances teachers’ ability to engage with students
but also increases their confidence in adapting instruction to meet individual needs
(Romero-Garcia et al., 2022).
When examining the association between SEC and teachers' self-efficacy, it is
crucial to consider self-efficacy as a multidimensional construct. For the purpose of
providing a helpful and interesting learning environment in the classroom, social and
emotional competence includes abilities like emotional regulation, empathy, and
interpersonal communication. The relationship between social and emotional competence
and teachers' self-efficacy can be fully comprehended by considering the
multidimensionality of teachers' self-efficacy, which includes their beliefs in instructional
strategies, motivating students, maintaining discipline, adapting instruction to individual
students’ needs, cooperating with colleagues and parents, and coping with challenges.
2.5. Social and emotional competence and teacher-student relationship
The relationship between teachers and students is essential to the growth of
students' cognitive, social, and emotional skills. Several studies have emphasized the
importance of the learner-teacher interaction quality in academic progress and motivation
including the works of Kunter et al. (2013), Hamre et al. (2014), and Aldrup et al. (2018).
The quality of teacher-student interaction can be considerably affected by the well-being
of teachers and their capability to handle the different needs of their students. This
suggests that the skills of teachers in managing the different requirements of their students
and their own emotional and psychological health can have a considerable effect on the
nature of the relationship between teachers and students (Aldrup. et al., 2020). Moreover,
lower levels of occupational well-being are linked to teachers experiencing feelings of
anger or anxiety and struggling to establish effective interactions and connections with
their students in the long term (Aldrup et al., 2017). Research has found that teachers who
feel emotionally drained are less sensitive toward their students and provide less
emotional support during their interactions, which in turn can lead to lower levels of
motivation and achievement in their classes (Aldrup. et al., 2020). Programs like TRUST
and RISE (Resilience in Schools and Educators) highlight the importance of emotional
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competence in building positive teacher-student relationships and improving classroom
dynamics (Fitzgerald et al., 2022).
2.6. Social and emotional competence affects classroom management
The social and emotional intelligence of educators has a significant influence on
their effectiveness in the classroom (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). According to Jennings
and Greenberg (2009), they can foster a positive environment by building trusting
relationships with their students, adapting their lessons to fit their needs and interests,
enforcing rules that promote self-motivation, resolving conflicts, encouraging
cooperation among students, and setting good examples of pro-social and effective
communication. Effective classroom management is a major role of teachers in schools
since the formation of socially and emotionally healthy classroom environments is
essential for accomplishing any academic goals (Brackett et al., 2009). Additionally, in
2015, Sieberer-Nagler stated that teachers who are effective classroom managers may
arrange their pupils, resources, physical space, and time in a way that promotes the best
possible learning environment. According to Fitzgerald et al (2022), teachers who were
emotionally competent and able to control their emotions had superior classroom
management abilities because they could build supportive relationships with their pupils
and foster an environment that was conducive to learning.
2.7. Social and emotional competence and teachers’ perfomance
Teachers are making progress in implementing social-emotional learning when they
can effectively manage their classrooms and establish positive relationships with their
students. They are considered the main and direct providers of social and emotional
learning, and those with higher social and emotional competence tend to feel comfortable
modelling and assisting others in developing SEL abilities (Jennings et al., 2017).
Teachers with high SEC also clearly show high levels of self-awareness. As a result, they
can build techniques to effectively use their emotions to motivate and encourage pupils
to study (Dung & Aniko, 2021). This particular competency is especially advantageous
in the implementation of SEL programs. According to Schonert-Reichl (2017), teachers
with high SEC also demonstrate strong social awareness. They can identify and
understand the feelings of others, including their students, parents, and co-workers, and
they work hard to build trusting and enduring relationships with them. Moreover, they
possess cultural awareness and acknowledge that others' perspectives may differ from
their own. This enables them to approach conflicts constructively and positively, coming
up with solutions that are beneficial for all parties involved. SEC unquestionably has a
significant influence on a teacher's performance. It has a substantial impact on several
elements, including the well-being of teachers, interactions between them and their
students, classroom management, and the success of adopting SEL programs.
Establishing a positive teacher-student relationship and fostering a welcoming classroom
environment are essential factors that can significantly impact students' social, emotional,
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and academic success (Schonert-Reichl, 2017). Consequently, these outcomes can also
influence the teacher's career satisfaction and happiness.
2.8. Influence of demographic factors on social and emotional competence
and self-efficacy
According to some studies, demographic factors including gender and years of
teaching experience may influence teachers' social and emotional competence as well as
teachers' self-efficacy. Despite conflicting results, several studies as revealed that
teaching experience may not have a substantial impact on instructors' self-efficacy and
social and emotional competence. Klassen and Chiu (2010) analysed the relationship
between teaching experience and self-efficacy beliefs among teachers and discovered that
the years of experience did not have a significant effect on teachers' self-efficacy.
Similarly, Jennings and Greenberg (2009) found no evidence of a substantial relationship
between teaching experience and social and emotional competence in their investigation.
In contrast, Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy's (2001) study discovered that teachers
with more teaching experience had higher levels of self-efficacy. Romero-García et al.
(2022) found that women and teachers with more teaching experience tended to possess
higher SEC and SE levels than men. Similarly, according to Piovano et al. (2020), women
demonstrated higher levels of pro-social behaviour- actions intended to benefit others,
such as, helping, sharing, and cooperating and emotional expression, and Llorent et al.
(2020) discovered that women were more socioemotionally competent than men with
higher scores in pro-social conduct and emotional self-awareness. These attributes are
closely related to SEC, as pro-social behavior and emotional expression are key
components of SEC.
However, while significant research has examined the role of SEC in students’
success, there is limited understanding of how teachers’ SEC correlates with their self-
efficacy -particularly in the context of Spanish primary schools. Therefore, this study
seeks to fill this gap by analyzing the relationship between SEC and teachers’ self-
efficacy in Spain. Understanding this relationship is essential for supporting teachers in
improving their practices and enhancing classroom outcomes. To address this gap, the
following research questions guide this study.
• What is the relationship between the social and emotional competence and self-
efficacy of teachers in Spain?
• What democratic factors are associated with the relationship between social and
emotional competence and teacher self-efficacy?
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Participants
Participants were 212 primary school teachers selected from 26 public schools in
Cordoba (in Andalusia, Southern Spain). 27.9% of participants were male (n = 59) and
72.1% of them were female (n = 153), aged between 22 and 64 (M = 44.64; SD = 9.65).
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The majority of participants were female and their mid-40s. In terms of teaching
experience, the participants ranged from those with minimal experience (0,08) to highly
experienced individuals with up to 41 years of professional practice (M=18,76;
SD=10.10).
While both age and years of teaching experience might be consided significant
study variables, the decision was taken to focus on teaching experience. This choice was
guided by research indicating that years of teaching experience is more direct predictor
of self-efficacy than age. (Klassen & Chiu, 2010). Years of experience provide a more
accurate assessment of how teachers develop their competence and confidence in the
classroom since self-efficacy is closely linked to the amount of time spent practicing and
improving teaching skills. Therefore, age excluded from the study as a primary variable.
Table 1
Demographic data about participants
3.2. Instruments
The study utilized a quantitative research method to investigate the research
question and objectives. This approach involves the collection and analysis of numerical
data to find correlations and statistical associations (Lerche, 2012). Moreover, three
different questionaries were used to facilitate the exploration of relationships and patterns
within collected data. For this study, the non-probabilistic sampling method was
employed to ensure accessibility and practicality (Berndt, 2020). Participants completed
a three-measure survey. Questionnaires to evaluate emotional intelligence, interpersonal
skills, and teachers' levels of self-efficacy quality were given after a demographic sheet.
The demographic sheet of the survey collected various personal information about the
participants, including age, gender, and years of teaching experience.
The TMMS-24 Trait Emotional Meta-Mood Scale, which Fernández-Berrocal
(2004) modified and validated in Spain, was used to measure emotional intelligence (EI)
(Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2004). This scale was chosen because emotional awareness,
clarity, and emotional regulation are foundational to understanding socio-emotional
competence. The TMMS-24 consists of 24 items, divided into three subscales: Emotional
Attention measures a person's capacity to be conscious of their feelings and to distinguish
Variables
Categories
N
Percent
Gender
Male
59
27.9%
Female
153
72.1%
Age categories
Age 21-40
74
34.9%
Age 41-64
119
56.1%
Age 64 and over
19
9.0%
Experience categories
Experience 1-25
74
62.6%
Experience 25-45
119
28.0%
Experience over 45
19
9.5%
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between various emotions (e.g., “I constantly think about how I feel”). Emotional Clarity
assesses a person's capacity for correct understanding and labelling of their emotions
(e.g., “I can frequently describe my feelings”). Emotional Repair evaluates a person's
capacity to control their emotions and employ useful coping mechanisms for unpleasant
feelings (e.g., “Although I sometimes feel sad, I tend to have an optimistic outlook). On
a scale from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (absolutely agree), all 24 things are assessed. In
this study, Cronbach alpha coefficients for the questionnaire were determined and the
reliability value for the EI was α = .90.
Interpersonal Competence was evaluated using the Interpersonal Competence
Questionnaire (ICQ) by Buhrmester et, al (1988), which evaluates a person’s ability to
navigate various social interactions effectively. The ICQ was selected because
interpersonal skills-such as managing conflicts, asserting oneself, and offering emotional
support – are key to socio0emotional competence. It consists of 40 items, and
respondents rate each item on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (I’m poor at this) to 5 (I’m
extremely good at this) which was designed by Levenson and Gottman (1978). Questions
included “Telling a companion at work you don’t like a certain way he or she has been
treating you”, “Turning down a request by a companion that is unreasonable”, and
“Helping a close companion cope with family or roommate problems”. The average of
the eight stated items determines the scale scores for each of the five domains. Through
statistical analyses, Buhrmester et al. (1988) established that the Interpersonal
Competence Questionnaire evaluates five unique social competence components and
discovered evidence to support the scale's validity for both same-sex and opposite-sex
assessments. In this study, Cronbach alpha coefficients were computed and α = .92 was
found for the general reliability of ICQ. To analyze the relationships between SEC and
dimensions of self-efficacy, five dimensions of Interpersonal Competence were taken into
consideration as one dimension that was also applied in other studies such as Herzberg et
al. (1998). In his study, this approach was validated and shown to provide a
comprehensive measure of Interpersonal Competence.
Few measures now available for evaluating SEC fully account for the range of
intrapersonal and interpersonal competence; instead, they focus on certain aspects
including emotional intelligence or social skills. This study addresses a vacuum in the
literature by combining the TMMS-24 and ICQ to provide a more expansive,
comprehensive assessment of SEC. The emotional and social aspects that are crucial for
teachers to effectively handle classroom dynamics and enhamce student outcomes are
captured by this combination. Other research (Herzberg et al., 1998) have demonstrated
similar composite techniques, where a combined SEC measure provided a comprehensive
assessment of competence.
A strong internal consistency (α =.91) was obtained by calculating a Cronbach's
alpha across the combined items from the TMMS-24 and ICQ to ensure the validity and
reliability of this new composite SEC measure. This indicates that a single, cohesive SEC
construct is effectively measured by the combination of these two instruments.
The 24-item Norwegian Teacher Self-Efficacy Scale (NTSES), created by Skaalvik
and Skaalvik in 2007, was used to evaluate teachers' levels of self-efficacy in a variety of
areas. Six dimensions of the scale, each with four items, were measured. The NTSES
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assesses teachers' self-efficacy in six areas, including their capacity to deliver effective
instruction, modify instruction to meet the needs of particular students, inspire students,
uphold classroom order, work cooperatively with coworkers and parents, and manage
changes and challenges in the teaching environment. Participants’ responses ranged from
"Not certain at all" to "Absolutely certain" on a 7-point scale The internal consistency of
six dimensions of Teachers’ self-efficacy was calculated in this study using the Cronbach
alpha coefficient, which was found to be sufficient:1. instruction (α = .81) (e.g., “Explain
central themes in your subjects so that even the low-achieving students understand”), 2.
motivate students (α = .82) (e.g., “Wake the desire to learn even among the lowest-
achieving students”), 3. maintain discipline (α = .86) (e.g., “Maintain discipline in any
school class or group of students”), 4. cope with changes (α = .78) (e.g., “Successfully
use any instructional method that the school decides to use”), 5. cooperate with colleagues
and parents (α = .74) (e.g., “Co-operate well with most parents”), 6. adapt instruction to
individual needs (α = .81) (e.g., “Organize schoolwork to adapt instruction and
assignments to individual needs”).
3.3. Data collection
The project was approved by the Ethics and Biosafety Committee of the University
of Cordoba. After the required permissions were obtained from the regional government,
the schools were selected based on their location and willingness to participate. After that
they were contacted and the purpose of the study and anonymity were explained. The
study included teachers who were currently employed at the selected primary schools and
who had previously agreed to participate after being provided with all the necessary
information about the study. During the study, these schools were visited to conduct the
survey. Teachers were informed about the voluntary and confidential nature of their
involvement. After that, questionnaires were given to teachers in envelopes during a
scheduled meeting at each school where all participants were invited, and they were made
aware that they had two weeks to complete them. Subsequently, questionnaires were
collected from participants in closed envelopes. The data collection process was
completed in one month.
3.4. Data analysis
To assess the psychometric qualities of the TMMS-24, ICQ, and NTSES a
correlational descriptive study method was utilized. SPSS (Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences version 28) was used to perform descriptive statistics.
Firstly, to find out the general characteristics of participants, descriptive statistics
were computed including mean, standard deviation, maximum values, and minimum
values for emotional intelligence, interpersonal competence, and self-efficacy subscales.
Student’s-t test was used to analyze gender differences between variables. Cohen d was
a measure to determine the differences between group effect sizes (Cohen, 1992).
According to this measure, d = 0.2 is a small, d = 0.5 is a medium, and d = 0.8 is a large
effect size. Next relationships between SEC, dimensions of teachers' self-efficacy, and
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teaching experience were calculated using a Pearson correlation analysis. Emotional
intelligence and interpersonal competence were considered key indicators of SEC. These
scales captured both the intrapersonal and interpersonal dimensions of SEC, which were
essential to acknowledging how teachers’ abilities to manage emotions and navigate
social interactions relate to their self-efficacy in the classroom. The SPSS statistical
package was utilized to organize, code, and analyze the data.
4. RESULTS
4.1. Research question 1: What is the relationship between the social and
emotional competence and teachers’ self-efficacy in Spain
4.1.1. Descriptive analysis
After analyzing descriptive statistics of all study variables, the dimension of
instruction had the highest mean scores on the Norwegian Teacher Self-Efficacy Scale
(M = 6.12; SD =.72), followed by adapting instruction to individual needs (M = 6.04; SD
=.72) and cooperating with colleagues and parents (M = 5.99; SD =.86). The mean score
and standard deviation of Emotional intelligence were M = 4.64; SD =.69 and the numbers
for Interpersonal competence were M = 4.51; SD = .57. In Table 2 descriptive statics of
study variables were demonstrated.
Table 2
Mean and standard deviation of the variables
Variables
M
SD
Emotional intelligence
4.64
.69
Interpersonal competence
4.51
.57
Instruction
6.12
.72
Motivate students
5.70
.87
Maintain discipline
5.92
.96
Cope with changes
5.81
.83
Cooperate with colleagues and parents.
5.99
.86
Adapt instruction to individual needs
6.04
.72
DIGILEC Revista Internacional de Lenguas y Culturas 138
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4.1.2. Correlation analysis
The first and third hypotheses concentrated on the connection between SEC, years
of teaching experience, and dimensions of teachers' self-efficacy. According to the results
of the correlation analysis (Table 3), dimensions of teachers' self-efficacy are positively
correlated with emotional intelligence and interpersonal competence (p = .001). The
correlation between emotional intelligence and subscales of teacher self-efficacy was
weak but statistically significant (p = .001). The correlation between interpersonal
competence and two dimensions of self-efficacy (Instruction and Cooperate with
colleagues and parents) was low but positive and statistically significant. The correlations
between interpersonal competence and the remaining four dimensions was very weak but
positive and statically significant (p = .001). However, years of teaching experience did
not indicate a significant association with any of the self-efficacy subscales. Moreover,
the association between years of teaching experience and most of the subscales of self-
efficacy was weakly negative.
Table 3
Correlation between variables
1
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
.32*
1
.06
-.05
.17**
.32**
1
.28**
.28**
.71**
1
.18**
.20**
.58**
.72**
1
.22**
.22**
.68**
.64**
.59**
1
.26**
.34**
.69**
.71**
.68**
.59**
1
.25**
23**
.72**
.65**
.60**
.72**
.59**
1
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
DIGILEC Revista Internacional de Lenguas y Culturas 139
Digilec 11 (2024), pp. 126-149
4.2. Research question 2: What demographic factors are associated with the
relationship between social and emotional competence and teachers’ self-
efficacy?
4.2.1. Gender differences
The second research hypothesis was that there are substantial differences in self-
efficacy levels between male and female teachers in Spain, with female teachers reporting
greater levels than male instructors. Considering sex, it was determined whether there
were any differences in SEC and teachers’ self-efficacy. For this aim, t-tests were used.
As can be seen in Table 4, men and women achieved an equal average range in almost all
variables. The results demonstrated that there was no significant difference between
female and male primary school teachers across most variables. However, it was revealed
that there is a significant difference in the “Motivating students” dimensions of self-
efficacy, where female teachers scored higher than male teachers (M = 22.96, SD = 2.83
for females; M = 21.96, SD= 3.58 for males), indicating that female teachers tend to report
greater self-efficacy in motivating students compared to their male counterparts.
Tabla 4
T-test group statistics
Variables
Gender
M
SD
F
t
df
p
d
Emotional intelligence
Male
91.98
10.26
.885
.944
206
.346
-.148
Female
93.77
12.64
Interpersonal competence
Male
146.03
18.44
.539
1.584
206
.115
.249
Female
141.62
17.42
Instruction
Male
23.90
2.42
.001
-.113
203
.910
-.018
Female
23.95
2.49
Motivate students
Male
21.96
3.58
2.339
-2.072
203
.040
-.327
Female
22.96
2.83
Maintain discipline
Male
22.85
4.00
.415
.418
203
.677
.066
Female
22.62
3.24
Cope with changes
Male
22.85
2.75
2.227
.140
203
.889
.022
Female
22.78
3.18
Cooperate with colleagues
and parents
Male
23.38
3.10
.715
-.474
203
.636
-.075
Female
23.58
2.59
Adapt instruction to
individual needs
Male
23.07
2.44
1.465
-.392
203
.695
-.062
Female
23.24
2.93
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Digilec 11 (2024), pp. 126-149
5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Considering the significance of the social ramifications associated with socio-
emotional competences and the impact of teacher self-efficacy on students, the current
study concentrated on how social and emotional competence relates to teachers' self-
efficacy and how demographic factors such as years of teaching experience and gender
can link to social-emotional competence and teachers’ self-efficacy.
First of all, the capacity to deliver effective instruction and to modify instruction to
meet the needs of students have perceived at a high level, as shown by the high scores in
these areas. These high scores suggest that teachers feel confident in their ability to
effectively utilize a variety of teaching strategies to engage learners, regardless of their
interests or specific requirements. Dimensions including cooperating with colleagues and
parents, motivating students, maintaining discipline, and coping with changes
demonstrated moderate scores. This discovery is crucial since previous studies have
indicated that educators with a lack of methodological techniques might seriously affect
their professional practice in the future, to the point where some may even think about
quitting a job (Faez F, 2012). According to Tschannen-Moran et al. (1998), teachers' level
of self-efficacy can influence the amount of effort they contribute to the regular
educational process of teaching youngsters. In other words, educators who have a strong
belief in their own talents are more likely to utilize methods that reduce unfavourable
outcomes and promote pleasant learning environments marked by supportive
relationships and academic engagement (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Moreover,
teachers’ confidence in their abilities can lead them to identify their strengths and
weakness and develop their organizational and self-awareness skills (Agbaria, 2021).
Self-efficacy of teachers is a crucial aspect of future teachers since it has a lasting impact
on their professional practice over the long term and demonstrates resistance to change
(Romero-García et al., 2022).
Secondly, relationships between social-emotional competence and dimensions of
self-efficacy were investigated. Based on our hypothesis, our findings indicate a
significant correlation between SEC and self-efficacy. However, while this suggests that
individuals with higher social-emotional competence tend to demonstrate a higher level
of self-efficacy. It is important to note that this study cannot establish a causal relationship
between the two variables. Romero-García et al. (2022) also provided similar outcomes
in a study of future secondary school teachers. They found that there was a significant
relationship between socio-emotional competences and secondary school teachers' self-
efficacy. However, this study chose not to replicate their instruments, as the context of
primary education requires a tailored approach. We developed a new instrument to better
capture the socio-emotional competences and self-efficacy dimensions relevant to
teachers working with younger children. Furthermore, Llorent et al. (2020) associated
socio-emotional competences with the capacity to address particular requirements of
learners. It can be concluded that social and emotional competence and self-efficacy have
a positive impact on each other.
Additionally, it was found that there was no significant association between years
of teaching experience and most dimensions of teachers' self-efficacy. Teaching
DIGILEC Revista Internacional de Lenguas y Culturas 141
Digilec 11 (2024), pp. 126-149
experience did not appear to significantly influence the self-efficacy subscales, which was
also provided by Djigic et al. (2014). According to Bandura's social cognitive theory, a
variety of elements, including mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social
persuasion, as well as physiological and affective states, have an impact on self-efficacy.
These factors can interact in complex ways that may overshadow the direct impact of
teaching experience alone.
The study also addressed how gender affected social and emotional competency
and teachers' self-efficacy. Overall, there were no statistically significant differences
between male and female teachers in most variables, except in the area of motivating
students, where female teachers showed slightly higher scores. However, this difference
should be interpreted with caution, as it was not found to be strongly significant across
all variables.
There are some limitations related to the current study. Firstly, questionnaires rely
on the self-reporting of participants, which can introduce response biases and social
desirability effects. Participants may tend to respond in a way that is socially desirable
which could cause them to overestimate or underestimate their social-emotional
competence and self-efficacy. Furthermore, since the participants were not chosen
randomly, non-probabilistic methods are subject to sampling bias. Similarly, although
descriptive and correlational analyses can identify relationships between variables, they
cannot determine the cause of the link or its direction. Additionally, a longitudinal study
would enable greater comprehension of the reasons behind, and characteristics of the
associations made in the presented model. Therefore, future studies should test the
research variables in primary education while taking these limitations into consideration.
In order to prove causal links between SEC and self-efficacy, we recommend conducting
longitudinal research to assess the stability of the models developed.
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Appendix: Questionnaires
The Trait Meta-Mood Scale
Please read each statement and decide whether you agree with it. Circle a number to each
statement using the following scale:
1. I pay a lot of attention to feelings
1
2
3
4
5
2. I usually care a lot about what I´m feeling
1
2
3
4
5
3. I usually spend a lot of time thinking about my feelings
1
2
3
4
5
4. I think it´s important to pay attention to my feelings and my moods
1
2
3
4
5
5. I let my feelings affect my thoughts
1
2
3
4
5
6. I constantly think about how I feel
1
2
3
4
5
7. I often think about my feelings
1
2
3
4
5
8. I pay a lot of attention to how I feel
1
2
3
4
5
9. I understand my feelings
1
2
3
4
5
10. I can frequently describe my feelings
1
2
3
4
5
11. I almost always know how I am feeling
1
2
3
4
5
12. I usually know how I feel about people
1
2
3
4
5
13. I’m often aware of my feelings in different situations
1
2
3
4
5
14. I can always explain how I feel
1
2
3
4
5
15. Sometimes I can explain my feelings
1
2
3
4
5
16. I am able to understand my feelings
1
2
3
4
5
17. Although I sometimes feel sad, I tend to have an optimistic outlook
1
2
3
4
5
18. Even though I feel bad, I try to think about pleasant things
1
2
3
4
5
19. When I am sad, I think about the good things in life
1
2
3
4
5
20. I try to think positive thoughts even when I feel bad
1
2
3
4
5
21. If I complicate things by thinking too much, I try to calm down
1
2
3
4
5
22. I am concerned with feeling well
1
2
3
4
5
23. I have a lot of energy when I feel happy
1
2
3
4
5
24. When I am angry, I try to change my mood
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Completely
disagree
Somewhat agree
Mostly agree
Very much agree
Completely
agree
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Interpersonal competence questionnaire
1
2
3
4
5
I’m poor at this
I’m only fair at
this
I’m OK at
this
I’m good at
this
I’m extremely good
at this
1. Asking or suggesting to someone new that you get together and do
something, e.g., go out together 1 2 3 4 5
2. Telling a companion you don’t like a certain way he or she has been treating
you 1 2 3 4 5
3. Revealing something intimate about yourself while talking with someone
you’re just getting to know 1 2 3 4 5
4. Helping a close companion work through his or her thoughts and feelings
about a major life decision, e. g., a career choice 1 2 3 4 5
5. Being able to admit that you might be wrong when a disagreement with a
close companion begins to build into a serious fight 1 2 3 4 5
6. Finding and suggesting things to do with new people whom you find
interesting and attractive 1 2 3 4 5
7. Saying “no” when a date/acquaintance asks you to do something you don’t
want to do 1 2 3 4 5
8. Confiding in a new friend/date and letting him or her see your softer, more
sensitive side 1 2 3 4 5
9. Being able to patiently and sensitively listen to a companion “let off steam”
about outside problems s/he is having 1 2 3 4 5
10. Being able to put begrudging (resentful) feelings aside when having a fight
with a close companion 1 2 3 4 5
11. Carrying on conversations with someone new whom you think you might
like to get to know 1 2 3 4 5
12. Turning down a request by a companion that is unreasonable
1 2 3 4 5
13. Telling a close companion thing about yourself that you’re ashamed of
1 2 3 4 5
14. Helping a close companion get to the heart of a problem s/he is
experiencing 1 2 3 4 5
15. When having a conflict with a close companion, really listening to his or
her point of view 1 2 3 4 5
16. Being an interesting and enjoyable person to be with when first getting to
know people 1 2 3 4 5
DIGILEC Revista Internacional de Lenguas y Culturas 148
Digilec 11 (2024), pp. 126-149
17. Standing up for your rights when a companion is neglecting you or being
inconsiderate 1 2 3 4 5
18. Letting a new companion get to know the “real you.”
1 2 3 4 5
19. Helping a close companion cope with family or roommate problems
1 2 3 4 5
20. Being able to take a companion’s perspective in a fight and really
understand his or her point of view
1
2
3
4
5
21. Introducing yourself to someone you might like to get to know (or date)
1
2
3
4
5
22. Telling a date/acquaintance that he or she is doing something that
embarrasses you
1
2
3
4
5
23. Letting down your protective “outer shell” and trusting a close companion
1
2
3
4
5
24. Being a good and sensitive listener for a companion who is upset
1
2
3
4
5
25. Refraining from saying things that might cause a disagreement to build
into a big fight
1
2
3
4
5
26. Calling (on the phone) a new date/acquaintance to set up a time to get
together and do something
1
2
3
4
5
27. Confronting your close companion when he or she has broken a promise
1
2
3
4
5
28. Telling a close companion about the things that secretly make you feel
anxious or afraid
1
2
3
4
5
29. Being able to say and do things to support a close companion when s/he is
feeling down
1
2
3
4
5
30. Being able to work through a specific problem with a companion without
resorting to global accusations (“you always do that”)
1
2
3
4
5
31. Presenting good first impressions to people you might like to become
friends with (or date)
1
2
3
4
5
32. Telling a companion that he or she has done something to hurt your
feelings
1
2
3
4
5
33. Telling a close companion how much you appreciate and care for him or
her
1
2
3
4
5
34. Being able to show genuine empathic concern even when a companion’s
problem is uninteresting to you
1
2
3
4
5
35. When angry with a companion, being able to accept that s/he has a valid
point of view even if you don’t agree with that view
1
2
3
4
5
36. Going to parties or gatherings where you don’t know people well in order
to start up new relationships
1
2
3
4
5
37. Telling a date/acquaintance that he or she has done something that made
you angry
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
I’m poor at this
I’m only fair at
this
I’m OK at
this
I’m good at
this
I’m extremely good
at this
DIGILEC Revista Internacional de Lenguas y Culturas 149
Digilec 11 (2024), pp. 126-149
38. Knowing how to move a conversation with a date/acquaintance beyond
superficial talk to really get to know each other 1 2 3 4 5
39. When a close companion needs help and support, being able to give advice in
ways that are well received 1 2 3 4 5
40. Not exploding at a close companion (even when it is justified) in order to avoid
a damaging conflict 1 2 3 4 5