This study focused on the field of imagination and creativity in the classroom by proposing a creative learning experience to a group of 92 fine arts students. Following a theoretical reflection on strategies of unpredictability in artistic creation, participants were asked to develop an artistic project in which chance intervened at some point in the creative process. Our objective was to evaluate the influence of image control, creative thinking, and creative experiences on the realization of an artistic project. Two expert judges measured the originality, the elaboration, and the total score of each project. The results demonstrated the importance of mental imagery and creative thinking in artistic creation. Image control and creative thinking influenced the originality of the project. It can be interesting to develop creative learning experiences that involve imagination and creative thinking in the classroom. In addition, future research work is proposed.
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How to Cite
Pérez-Fabello, M. J., & Apostolou, T. (2024). Influence of mental image and creativity in the artistic process through strategies of unpredictability. Revista de Estudios e Investigación en Psicología y Educación, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.17979/reipe.2024.11.2.10672
Pérez-Fabello and Apostolou: Influence of mental image and creativity in the artistic process through strategies
of unpredictability
The role of mental imagery in creativity is well known (; ). Researchers highlight the potential of mental imagery to overcome the limits of
the perceptual process, in creating objects, situations, or projects with greater
flexibility and fantasy (, , ). The findings of provide some support for the idea that domain-specific creativity can be enhanced
by developing skills in the use of mental imagery to produce novel ideas and that
this also enhances domain-general flexible thinking. This is proven by the use of
mental imagery in the design of new products (; ), or to benefit the creative process ().
Anyone can use their capacity for imagination (), but visual artists are clear examples of its use in creating their work (). They must often conjure up images (image activation) and they must modify these
images as they plan their works (image manipulation). Building on this premise, examined how fine arts students performed on three image activation tasks: vividness
of visual images, recognition of out-of-focus images, and imagining the underlying
structure of a drawing (abstraction). In addition, utilising a mental rotation task,
they examined the ability to manipulate images. The results confirmed that art students
excelled on vividness of visual images and abstraction.
In a series of works Pérez-Fabello and cols. (; , , , , ) studied different types of mental image abilities in groups of fine arts students,
comparing these skills with artistic exercises or academic performance in the fine
arts degree. Thus, examined the influence of artistic experience on the mental image capacity of fine
arts students. The authors compared first and last year undergraduate students on
the basis of their performance in 2 tests of visual imagery capacity and 3 drawing
tests involving representation, transformation of spatial relations, and visual memory.
Students who had undergone a longer period of art training performed significantly
better on all 5 tests. The results indicated that art training can improve imaging
capacity. In addition, they found that students' image vividness capacity had an influence
in the execution of an artistic exercise related to spatial skills and spatial manipulation
(). They also demonstrated the significant influence of image control on the completion
of a drawing exercise focused on the pictorial representation of space. Participants
with high scores on the image control test obtained significantly higher scores on
the artistic exercise assessment ().
The results of studies on academic performance were not as consistent. assessed the relationships between image vividness and image control and artistic
academic performance in drawing, painting, sculpture, and complementary subjects.
Image control correlated with academic performance in fine arts in all areas studied.
However, found no significant correlation between object or spatial image processing and academic
performance in academic blocks of painting, drawing, or sculpture. However, it has
previously been shown that the object-image cognitive style is preferred by fine art
students over the spatial or verbal cognitive style and that the object-image cognitive
style influenced the results of a fine art exercise that was evaluated by expert judges
().
Chance, as a method of artistic creation, has marked 20th and 21st century art. Different
authors have reflected on the methods used by artists to distance themselves from
the work (, ; ; , ; ). in her exhibition "Aesthetics of Chance" presents the dynamic tension between chance
and control in the works of artists whose creative processes involved chance throughout
the twentieth century. The use of chance or other types of unpredictability implies
a limitation of the artist's control in the creative process. For example, for the Dadaists renounced control to emphasise the absurd, while the Surrealists surrendered
conscious control to connect with the unconscious, the part of the mind resistant
to control. notes that the methods of the Dadaists pitted chaos against control, as opposed to
the Surrealists who reduced artistic agency to a passive role. considers that the use of processes involving unpredictability, which were considered
novel by the avant-gardes of the 20th century, is today integrated into the creative
processes of contemporary artists, but a system of studying them together was needed.
For this, based on the study of works and creative processes of contemporary artists
from 1970 to 2020, he created a classification system of the different types of unpredictability,
which are often grouped under the term chance. These types of unpredictability can
affect the artistic creation depending on their source and the stage of the creative
process in which they are introduced. The objective was to analyse the tension between
control and unpredictability in the creative process of contemporary art by identifying
different strategies for limiting control.
based on research in cognitive science and the neuroscience of creativity promote
the notion that creative modes of thinking are legitimate and important learning objectives
supporting creativity. Given that creativity is a 21st century educational priority
(, , ), it seems necessary for educators to begin to consider how to design learning experiences
that support it. Moreover, creative exercises involve the development of higher-order
skills according to Bloom's taxonomy, which considers creativity as superior to evaluation
within the cognitive domain (see, ). Furthermore, we believe that imagination plays a crucial role in reorganising previous
information and creating a new pattern or structure (, , ). Thus, the aim of this study was to assess how image control capacity, creative
thinking, and creative experiences influence the development of a creative project
involving the aforementioned strategies for limiting control in the creative process,
such as the use of chance. The independent variables were image control ability (individuals
high and low in image control), creative thinking (students high and low in creative
thinking), and creative experiences (subjects high and low in creative experiences).
Originality, elaboration ratings, and the total score of the art project were used
as dependent variables.
Method
Participants
The sample consisted of a total of 92 undergraduates, of which 66 were women, and
26 were men in their second year in the Fine Arts degree. The mean age was 19.95 years,
(SD = 1.93), range 18 to 29 years.
Instruments
The participants were given the following tests: To measure image control we used
the Spanish version () of the Gordon Test of Visual Imagery Control (Gordon Test) (). To measure creativity, we used the scale Something About Myself (SAM) from the
Khatena-Torrance Creative Perception Inventory (KTCPI, ), and the Spanish version (), of the Creative Experiences Questionnaire (CEQ, .
The Gordon Test
The Gordon Test () measures participants' ability to control visual imagery and consists of 12 items
in which individuals are asked to imagine a car in various colours, positions, and
states of motion. They are then asked to rate each response on a 3-point scale where
"no" is scored 0, "unsure" is scored 1, and "yes" is scored 2. The total score ranges
from 0 to 24 points. Higher scores indicate better image control. obtained a Cronbach's alpha of .69.
The Creative Perception Inventory
The Creative Perception Inventory (KTCPI, ) is a test of creative perception consisting of two independent scales: the “What
Kind of Person Are You?” (WKODAY) and the “Something About Myself” (SAM). The SAM
was used, which consists of 50 questions measuring different dimensions of creative
personality through six scales: Environmental Sensitivity, Initiative, Self-Affirmation,
Intellectuality, Individuality, and Artistic Ability. We used the total scale score.
Cronbach's alpha was .79 ().
The Creative Experiences Questionnaire
The Creative Experiences Questionnaire ( measures fantasy propensity through 25 statements that participants have to answer
"yes" if it applies to them or has happened to them, or "no" if it does not apply
to them or has not happened to them. The maximum score is 25. obtained a Cronbach's alpha of .89.
Procedure
We presented a learning experience based on a reflection about strategies involving
unpredictability in artistic creation supported by a slide presentation. The theoretical
presentation lasted 10 minutes. Subsequently, the participants were asked to propose
an artistic project in which unpredictability intervened at some point in its process.
The participants were allowed 25 minutes to complete the task. Two factors of the
project were measured, its originality and its elaboration. These factors are two
of the four subcategories proposed by Torrance in his test of creative thinking (; i.e. fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration), and are all still used
as measures of creativity (; ; ).
Originality was assessed in terms of the novelty and relevance of the project on a
scale of 1 to 10. Elaboration counts the number of significant details, giving one
point for each detail that helps explain the project. Both factors are evaluated independently
by two artists with extensive experience and professors from the Faculty of Fine Arts
(University of Vigo, Spain). The degree of agreement between them was .99 for originality
and .95 for elaboration (see two examples of art projects in the Appendix).
During one of their regular classes participants were given a folder containing the
ad hoc test on unpredictability strategies in art, the Control Test, the SAM, and
the CEQ. The "ad hoc" test was conducted first, and then the participants completed
the image control test and the two creativity tests. These three tests had their own
written instructions and no time limit. The total time taken was approximately 55
minutes. All students were assured their results would remain anonymous and confidential
and written informed consent was obtained from each participant.
The study was conducted in accordance with ethical rules contained in the Declaration
of Helsinki of 2013 and was approved by the authors' university ethics committee (protocol
number: 0001-F-2022-03-25).
In order to divide the participants into high and low on the Control Test (Mean =
21), the SAM (Mean = 33), and the CEQ (Mean = 12), the mean score on each test was
taken into account. Participants who scored above the group mean were considered high
in image control ability, creative perception, and creative experiences; and participants
who scored below the group mean were considered low in image control ability, creative
perception, and creative experiences.
Data Analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using the IBM SPSS Statistics, Version 25.0, statistical
software (IBM Corporation, Armonk, NY, USA). The internal consistency of the tests
was calculated by Cronbach’s alpha () and McDonald’s Omega coefficient (, ). To find out how image control capacity (high and low in the Control Test), creative
perception (high and low in creative thinking), and creative experiences (high and
low in creative experiences) influenced fine arts students, three ANOVAs were conducted
—2 Control Test (high and low in image control) x 2 creative perception, SAM (high
and low in creative perception) x 2 creative experiences, CEQ (high and low in creative
experiences)—, with the dependent variable in each ANOVA being the originality score,
elaboration score and total score (the sum of the previous two), respectively.
Results
Firstly, we analysed the reliability of the tests used in this study by means of Cronbach's
alpha (α) and McDonald’s Omega coefficient (ω). In the Control Test, we obtained α
= .87 and ω = .87, in the SAM α = .81, ω = .82, and in the CEQ α = .69, ω = .67. We
then analysed the originality scores of the art projects to find out whether there
were significant differences between high (M = 9.85, SD = 3.22) and low (M = 8.46, SD = 4.05) performers in image control ability (Control Test), between high (M = 9.82, SD = 3.53) and low (M = 8.50, SD = 3.75) performers in creative perception (SAM) and between high (M = 9.02, SD = 3.01) and low (M = 9.42, SD = 4.35) performers in creative experiences (CEQ) (see means and standard deviations
in Figure 1).
Figure 1Means and standard deviations of the originality score, as a function of image control
(Control Test), creative perception (SAM), and creative experiences (CEQ).
The results (see, Table 1) indicate that image control influenced originality. Fine arts students with high
image control scored significantly better on originality than students with low image
control. Creative perception also exerted a significant influence on originality.
Students with high creative perception scored significantly higher on originality
than students with low creative perception. However, no significant differences in
originality were found between those high and low in creative experiences. Interactions
between the variables were not significant.
Table 1Result of analysis of variance of the originality score, as a function of image control
(Control Test), creative perception (SAM), and creative experiences (CEQ).
F
p
β
Control Test
8.15
.01
.15
.80
SAM
7.27
.01
.13
.75
CEQ
3.36
.07
.07
.44
We also analysed whether there were significant differences in elaboration between
high (M = 7.10, SD = 2.66) and low (M = 6.04, SD = 2.47) scorers in image control ability (Control Test), between high (M = 6.48, SD = 2.71) and low (M = 6.75, SD = 2.51) performers in creative perception (SAM) and between high (M = 7.17, SD = 2.40) and low (M = 5.96, SD = 2.72) performers in creative experiences (CEQ) (see means and standard deviations
in Figure 2).
Figure 2Means and standard deviations of the elaboration score as a function of image control
(Control Test), creative perception (SAM), and creative experiences (CEQ).
We found (see Table 2) no significant differences between high and low on image control, between high and
low on creative perception, nor between high and low on creative experiences. Interactions
between the variables were not significant.
Table 2Result of analysis of variance of the elaboration score, as a function of image control
(Control Test), creative perception (SAM), and creative experiences (CEQ).
F
p
β
Control Test
2.70
.11
.05
.36
SAM
0.17
.68
.01
.07
CEQ
1.72
.20
.04
.25
Finally, we wanted to find out whether there were significant differences in the total
project score between high (M = 16.95, SD = 4.74) and low (M = 14.50, SD = 5.68) performers in image control ability (Control Test), between high (M = 16.30, SD = 5.18) and low (M = 15.25, SD = 5.48) performers in creative perception (SAM) and between high (M = 16.18, SD = 4.64) and low (M = 15.38, SD = 6.04) performers in creative experiences (CEQ) (see means and standard deviations
in Figure 3).
Figure 3Means and standard deviations of the total project score, as a function of image control
(Control Test), creative perception (SAM), and creative experiences (CEQ).
The results (see Table 3) showed that image control significantly influenced art project outcomes. Fine arts
students with high image control capacity obtained better total scores on the art
project than students with low image control capacity. However, no significant differences
in total scores were found between students scoring high in creative perception and
those scoring low. Neither were there differences between high and low performers
in creative experiences. Interactions between the variables were not significant.
Table 3Result of analysis of variance of the elaboration score, as a function of image control
(Control Test), creative perception (SAM), and creative experiences (CEQ).
F
p
β
Control Test
7.48
.01
.14
.76
SAM
2.41
.13
.05
.33
CEQ
0.62
.61
.01
.08
Discussion
Firstly, we found the reliability of the Control Test higher than that in previous
studies (). Secondly, the reliability found in the SAM is also slightly higher than that found
by . Finally, the reliability of the CEQ was found to be lower than that found by . Both the Control Test and the SAM achieved “good” reliability, and the CEQ was “acceptable”,
according to the criteria of for Cronbach's alpha and according to the criteria of for McDonald's omega.
The results showed that students with higher image control capacity scored higher
in originality and in the total score of the project compared to students with lower
image control capacity. These results confirm those obtained in previous studies,
in which image control seems to have an important weight in the outcome of artistic
exercises (), as well as in artistic academic performance ().
Students high in creative thinking performed better on originality than students low
in creative thinking. Previous studies did not find such strong results. used the Creative Perception Inventory (KTCPI) and the Creative Experiences Questionnaire
(CEQ) to measure creativity and compared it to the academic performance of fine arts
students. The authors only found significant positive correlations between creative
experiences and performance in drawing classes. Additionally, creativity as measured
by the CEQ explained only a small part (9%) of the performance in drawing.
Mental images and creative experiences influence creative proposals, therefore, we
consider, like , that it would be interesting to promote exercises of this type in the classroom
in order to achieve a deeper level of involvement by the students that allows them
to assist their learning.
Limitations and future lines of research
The strength of this study is its innovative approach of an artistic exercise in the
classroom, combining theoretical reflection alongside the development of a creative
project. The results demonstrate the possibilities of reinforcing certain types of
mental imagery abilities and creative experiences that favour creative processes (; ; ). The main limitation of this work is the sample of students belonging only to the
artistic field, as well as gender inequality, which limits the scope of the results.
Given the involvement of images in the creative process, it would be interesting to
consider, in future studies, how mental imagery training influences the improvement
of the creative process It would also be desirable to study different types of image
measures in order to find out what type of image is most appropriate in different
creative exercises. Identifying the influence of imagination on creative approaches
in different academic fields could also be an objective of future studies.
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Appendix
Examples of artistic projects
Example of an artistic project with a high level of originality and elaboration (above
the group mean)
Title (a title that summarises the project):
"throw" with certain objects, "use" with other objects.
Now, develop your project by indicating, as much as possible: objectives, method,
means, formalisation, time projection, dissemination, expectations, etc.
This is a process in which the public interacts at all times. Each participant voluntarily
chooses an object to throw/use: a knife, a pistol/shotgun, a heavy ball, a glass bottle,
marbles. After choosing one of these objects, he/she is taken to an enclosed space
where he/she can choose a surface: a large piece of plasticine or fresh clay, a pillow,
a target, a mattress or a rock surface. The chosen surface is placed vertically or
hung on the wall. The participant's eyes are then blindfolded, making it impossible
for him/her to control the throwing/using force of the object to be thrown/used, or
to see and choose where to hit.
The process of choosing and using the object (a strike, a cut, ...) as well as the
impact surface will lead to a different result.
This process will be repeated with a large number of participants, around 100 participants.
The aim is to play with control, the artist chooses the elements and gives control
to the participant and, at the same time, limits the control by preventing his/her
vision. The artist cedes control of the creative process to the participants who follow
a partially random process.
Example of an artistic project with a low level of originality and elaboration (below
the group mean)
Title (a title that summarises the project):
The basic of watercolours.
Now, develop your project by indicating, as much as possible: objectives, method,
means, formalisation, time projection, dissemination, expectations, etc.
The idea is to experiment with the first brushstroke in order to control the amount
of pigment and the proportion of water through a process of trial and error. It would
be aimed at beginners in the watercolour process.
The aim is to achieve a safe brushstroke by controlling the amount of pigment and/or
water.
